Indigenous Thinkers

 online at http://www.indianeduresearch.net/lipka.htm

Brenner, M. (1998). Adding cognition to the formula for culturally relevant instruction in mathematics. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29(2), 214-44.

In a series of research projects with Native-Hawaiian children from more than 100 families, ethnographic information and cognitive studies of mathematical thinking guided the development of culturally relevant mathematics teaching. The approach is compared with other recent efforts to develop culturally relevant instruction in mathematics.
Available from American Anthropological Association; phone 703-528-1902; Web site http://www.aaanet.org/cae/aeq/index.htm. Also available from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Demmert, W. G., Jr. (2001). Improving academic performance among Native American students: A review of the research literature [Electronic verson]. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

This literature review examines research-based information on educational approaches and programs associated with improving the academic performance of Native American students. A search reviewed ERIC's over 8,000 documents on American Indian education, as well as master's and doctoral dissertations and other sources of research on the education of Native America. Selected research reports and articles were organized into the following categories: early environment and experiences; Native language and cultural programs; teachers, instruction, and curriculum; community and parental influences on academic performance; student characteristics; economic and social factors; and factors leading to success in college or college completion. The status of research and major research findings are reviewed for each of these categories; brief summaries of research findings with citations are included following the review of each category. Also included are an annotated bibliography of more than 100 research reports, journal articles, and dissertations, most published after 1985; and a bibliography of 23 additional references to other literature reviews and non-Native studies.
Full text [http://www.ael.org/eric/demmert.htm]

Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From assimilation to self-determination. In M. W. Apple (Ed.), Review of Research in Education, vol. 22 (pp. 113-94). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

This paper reviews selected research on American Indian and Alaska Native education. The paper argues that until recently, research made little difference in the academic achievement of Indian youth but, rather, has tended to buttress the assimilation model of Indian education by locating deficiencies in Indian students and families. The "deficit model" was an especially dominant theme of research until the 1960s, when community-based ethnographic or long-term studies argued for a "cultural difference" model that addressed power relations. In the past 30 years, the largest body of research was grounded in educational anthropology and sociology. This research used the concept of culture as a framework for analyzing schooling and the behaviors of Indian students, parents, and communities. Cultural differences research has included such themes as child-rearing practices, learning styles, communication patterns, and interpersonal relationships. Research grounded in critical theory has focused on institutional racism and student resistance. Culturally-focused research provides an understanding of educational success and failure from the perspective of Indian students. Recent initiatives taken by Indian individuals and organizations to define and conduct relevant research are describes. (Contains over 250 references.)
Purchase from The American Educational Research Association (AERA); phone 202-223-9485; Web site http://www.aera.net/

Garrett, M. (1996). Two people: An American Indian narrative of bicultural identity. Journal of American Indian Education, 36(1), 1-21.

Discusses effects of acculturation on American Indian youth in terms of bicultural competence and identity development. The narrative or life-story of a Cherokee elder who is both mainstream physician and traditional medicine man elaborates on the traditional Indian approach to "learning the Medicine," and is divided according to five stages of bicultural identity development. Contains 40 references.
Purchase from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Grigorenko, E., Meier, E., Lipka, J., Mohatt, G., Yanez, E., & Sternberg, R. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study of the tacit knowledge of Native American Yup'ik people in Alaska (unpublished paper).

A study of 261 Yup'ik Eskimo children in grades 9-12 assessed the importance of academic and practical intelligence in rural and urban Alaskan communities. Academic intelligence was measured with conventional measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Practical intelligence was measured with a homemade test of tacit knowledge relevant to the environment in which most Yup'ik people live. The test measured tacit knowledge in five content areas: herbs, fishing and fish preparation, survival, folklore, and hunting. Adults and peers rated the children in terms of being a good thinker who could survive and in terms of being a great hunter. Urban children generally outperformed rural children on a measure of crystallized intelligence, but the rural children performed better on the measure of Yup'ik tacit knowledge. The test of tacit knowledge was superior to the tests of academic intelligence in predicting practical skills of rural children. (Contains 54 references.)
Availability: Forthcoming publication.

Holm, A., & Holm, W. (1995). Navajo language education: Retrospect and prospects. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1), 141-67.
Describes the growth and development of bilingual education on the Navajo Reservation and resultant outcomes for Navajo students, educators, and communities, and demonstrates how learning is mediated by language and culture in the Navajo context, as well as the critical conditions needed to sustain genuine two-language education. (Contains 16 references.)
Full text [PDF]

LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L. K., & Gerton, J. (1997). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. In L. A. Peplau & S. E. Taylor (Eds.), Sociocultural perspectives in social psychology: Current readings (pp. 241-76). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

This chapter reviews research from diverse American ethnic groups, including Native Americans and Latinos/Hispanics to examine the psychological impact of being bicultural. Five models of the change process that occurs during transitions within and between cultures are the assimilation, acculturation, alternation, multiculturalism, and fusion models. The underlying assumptions of each model are discussed, along with the hypotheses that each would appear to generate about the psychological impact of biculturalism. Examples from the research literature are presented to clarify these hypotheses. Six dimensions of bicultural competence are identified: knowledge of cultural beliefs and values, positive attitudes toward both majority and minority groups, bicultural efficacy, communication ability, role repertoire, and sense of being grounded. The alternation model, which assumes that an individual can know, understand, and participate effectively in two cultures, is judged to be the model that best facilitates the acquisition of these skills. (Contains over 150 references.)
Purchase from the publisher, Prentice Hall (800-282-0693) or from a commercial bookseller.

Lipka, J., Wildfeuer, S., Wahlberg, N., George, M., & Ezran, D. (2001). Elastic Geometry and Storyknifing: A Yup'ik Eskimo Example. Teaching Children Mathematics, 7(6), 337-43.

Introduces elastic geometry, or topology, into the elementary classroom through the study of connecting the intuitive, visual, and spatial components of storyknifing as well as other everyday and ethnomathematical activities.
Purchase from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Lipka, J., & Mohatt, G. V. (1998). Transforming the culture of schools: Yup'ik Eskimo examples. Sociocultural, political, and historical studies in education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED431565)

This book demonstrates that an indigenous teachers' group has the potential to transform the culture of schooling. Personal narratives by Yup'ik Eskimo teachers speak directly to issues of equity and school transformation. Their struggles represent the beginning of a slow process by a group of Yup'ik teachers (Ciulistet) and university colleagues to reconcile differences and conflict between the cultures of school and community. Their story provides insights for others involved in creating culturally responsive education that fundamentally changes the relationship between teachers and schooling, and between the community and schooling. This book is organized in four sections: introductory framework; description of the Cross-Cultural Education Development Program (alternative teacher education in rural Alaska Native communities) and narratives of three Yup'ik teachers depicting their struggles to be fully accepted as teachers; Yup'ik teaching methods and ways of incorporating ancient Yup'ik wisdom into schooling; and implications for wider change. Chapters are "Introduction: A Framework for Understanding the Possibilities of a Yup'ik Teacher Group" (Jerry Lipka); "The Evolution and Development of a Yup'ik Teacher" (Gerald V. Mohatt, Nancy Sharp); "Two Teachers, Two Contexts" (Gerald V. Mohatt, Fannie Parker); "Don't Act Like a Teacher! Images of Effective Instruction in a Yup'ik Eskimo Classroom" (Sharon Nelson-Barber, Vicki Dull); "Identifying and Understanding Cultural Differences: Towards a Culturally Based Pedagogy" (Jerry Lipka, Evelyn Yanez); "Expanding Curricular and Pedagogical Possibilities: Yup'ik-Based Mathematics, Science, and Literacy" (Jerry Lipka); and "Transforming Schooling: From Possibilities to Actuality?" (Jerry Lipka). An appendix describes methodology used in collaborative action research. An epilogue (Jerry Lipka, Gerald V. Mohatt) discusses declining university support, language shift, continuing development of Ciulistet teachers, and increasing involvement of Native elders in educational development. Contains references in most chapters, photographs, and author and subject indexes.
Purchase from publisher online at http://www.erlbaum.com/ or from a commercial bookseller.

Lipka, J., & McCarty, T. (1994). Changing the culture of schooling: Navajo and Yup'ik cases. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 25(3), 266-84.

Two cases are presented in which indigenous teacher groups are transforming the culture of schooling by creatively using their indigenous culture, knowledge, and language in the construction of curriculum and pedagogy. At Rough Rock Demonstration School (Arizona), indigenous teachers involved in a successful K-3 bilingual education program formed a teacher study group that looked critically at curriculum content, classroom practices, and student assessment. In southwestern Alaska, the Ciulistet group of Yup'ik teachers and elders engaged in reflective inquiry to explore ways in which Yup'ik pedagogical practices can support traditional values and content and yet meet external academic standards. Both teacher groups have created zones of safety in which resistance to conventional practices can be expressed and innovative approaches to schooling investigated and practiced. The work of these teacher groups has theoretical implications for community-based teacher preparation. (Contains 31 references.)
Purchase from American Anthropological Association; phone 703-528-1902; Web site http://www.aaanet.org/cae/aeq/index.htm. Also available from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Lomawaima, K. T. (1999). The unnatural history of American Indian education. In K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconic, III (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education (pp. 3-31). Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED427903)

A critical examination of the colonial education of American Indians unearths the roots of many stereotypical beliefs about the culture and capabilities of Native Americans. Deep-seated ideas and practices that were accepted as natural by past colonizers continue to undergird contemporary stereotypes about American Indians. The tenets of colonial education were not based on natural truths but were culturally constructed to serve specific agendas of the colonizing nations. These tenets were that Native Americans were savages and had to be civilized; that civilization required Christian conversion; that civilization required subordination of Native communities, frequently through resettlement; and that Native peoples had mental, moral, physical, or cultural deficiencies that made certain pedagogical methods necessary for their education. Each of these tenets is analyzed along with its legacies in today's classrooms and communities. Particular attention is given to the repeated relocations of Native communities, children, workers, and families under the political control and legal jurisdiction of the colonizing nations, and to the special pedagogical methods used to overcome Native peoples' "deficits." Contains 94 references and notes.
Full text [PDF]

Meriam, L., Brown, R. A., Cloud, H. R., Dale, E. E., Duke, E., Edwards, H. R., McKenzie, F. A., Mark, M. L., Ryan, Jr., W. C., & Spillman, W. J. (1928). The problem of Indian administration. Report of a survey made at the request of Honorable Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, and submitted to him, February 21st. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED087573)

The report, generally known as the Meriam Report, is a survey of the economic and social conditions of the American Indians during the 1920's. Data was collected by field work for approximately 7 months. One or more members of the investigating staff visited 95 different jurisdictions, either reservations, Indian agencies, hospitals, or schools and also communities where Indians have migrated. Practically all western states with any considerable Indian population were included in the field work. Because of the diversity and complexity of Indian affairs this document is necessarily voluminous. The detailed report contains the following sections: (1) a general policy for Indian Affairs, (2) health, (3) education, (4) general economic conditions, (5) family and community life and the activities of women, (6) migrated Indians, (7) legal aspects of the Indian problem, and (8) missionary activities among Indians. Findings and recommendations are listed in detail in the front of this report. Findings cover such areas as health, living conditions, the causes of poverty, and the work of the government in behalf of the Indians. Recommendations include adequate statistics and records, better living and working conditions, and improving general economic conditions.
Full text [PDF]

Ogbu, J. (1987). Variability in minority school performance: A problem in search of an explanation. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 18(4), 312-34.

Educational Anthropology has sought to explain performance differences between groups of students. The real issues are not language, cognitive style, or upbringing. Instead, the differences have to do with unequal educational opportunity, the relationship between minority and majority groups, and the lack of encouragement for minorities in the school setting.
Purchase from American Anthropological Association; phone 703-528-1902; Web site http://www.aaanet.org/cae/aeq/index.htm. Also available from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Reyhner, J. (1989). Changes in American Indian education: A historical retrospective for educators in the United States. ERIC Digest. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED314228)

This brief retrospective outlines major points in the history of American Indian education and major issues in Indian curriculum and teacher training. From the arrival of Europeans until recent times, formal schooling for American Indians has been controlled by others—first missionaries, then the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). After World War II, American Indians began to actively promote self-determination and their own civil rights. Today all Indian schools are controlled by the local community or are operated by the BIA in conjunction with local Indian school boards. American Indian students' generally poor academic achievement has been attributed to sociocultural factors, such as differences between students' and teachers' languages, cultures, values, and learning styles. School improvement efforts either are based on studies of urban or suburban schools serving the dominant culture or follow the "whole language approach," focusing on getting students to read more "real literature" and to write more. Integration of American Indian language and culture into the regular school curriculum is critical to improving student achievement. Teachers of Indian children need systematic training about sociocultural influences on learning and about tribal cultures. Some tribal councils have formulated educational policies that mandate school instruction in the tribal language and culture. This Digest contains 10 references.
Full text [http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed314228.html]

Skinner, L. (1999). Teaching through traditions: Incorporating languages and culture into curricula. In K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconic, III (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education (pp. 107-134). Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED427907)

This chapter discusses challenges to the perpetuation of American Indian languages and cultures, as well as successful strategies and practices for developing culturally relevant curriculum. A review of the history of U.S. assimilative educational policies towards American Indians leads into a discussion of the importance of language in maintaining cultural continuity and Native identity; the five stages of language preservation; and the recognition by the federal government, embodied in the Native American Languages Act of 1990, of the rights of American Indian tribes to determine their own linguistic destinies. The general population's lack of knowledge about American Indians is discussed. Seven values common to traditional Native education are identified that could form the basis of a tribal code of education or curriculum, and six recommendations are offered to move public schools toward equality and equity. An overview of successful models of culturally relevant curriculum in the U.S. and abroad is followed by a call for a National Native Curriculum Project, funded by the U.S. Department of Education, that would have regional offices develop locally researched Native curricula. The result would be a curriculum in every U.S. school that would change years of misinformation and enable students to view concepts, issues, events, and themes from the unique and diverse perspectives of Native groups. Contains references in endnotes and a bibliography.
Full text [PDF]

Sternberg, R., Nokes, P., Geissler, W., Prince, R., Okatcha, D., Bundy, D., & Grigorenko, E. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence, 29(5), 401-18.

A study of 85 children aged 12-15 in a rural Kenyan village tested the notion that academic and practical intelligence are separable and relatively distinct constructs. The children completed a test of their tacit knowledge of natural herbal medicines used locally to fight illnesses. Scores on the test of tacit knowledge had trivial or significant negative correlations with measures of academic intelligence and achievement, even after controlling for socioeconomic status. The villagers may see time spent developing academic skills as taking away from the time needed to develop practical skills. The result is that academic and practical intelligence can develop independently or even at odds with each other. (Contains 68 references.)
Purchase from Ingenta. For information about purchasing a copy, see http://www.ingenta.com/; or contact your local librarian about obtaining it through interlibrary loan.

Swisher, K. G., & Tippeconnic, III, J. W. (1999). Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED427902)

Written entirely by Native authors, this book addresses some critical issues in the education of American Indian and Alaska Native students. Intended for college classrooms, it aims to fill a void in the literature and textbooks used in multicultural and teacher education programs. The book has four sections: the past and present foundations of Indian education; curriculum issues, thoughts, and practice; the college and university experience; and next steps (research to support improved practice). Chapters are: (1) "The Unnatural History of American Indian Education" (K. Tsianina Lomawaima); (2) "Tribal Control of American Indian Education: Observations Since the 1960s with Implications for the Future" (John W. Tippeconnic III); (3) "Education and the Law: Implications for American Indian/Alaska Native Students" (Linda Sue Warner); (4) "Culturally Appropriate Curriculum: A Research-Based Rationale" (Tarajean Yazzie); (5) "Teaching through Traditions: Incorporating Languages and Culture into Curricula" (Linda Skinner); (6) "The Native American Learner and Bicultural Science Education" (Gregory A. Cajete); (7) "Student Assessment in Indian Education or What Is a Roach?" (Sandra J. Fox); (8) "Effective Counseling with American Indian Students" (Deborah Wetsit); (9) "The Role of Social Work in Advancing the Practice of Indigenous Education: Obstacles and Promises in Empowerment-Oriented Social Work Practice" (Michael J. Yellow Bird, Venida Chenault); (10) "American Indians and Alaska Natives in Higher Education: Promoting Access and Achievement" (D. Michael Pavel); (11) "Tribal Colleges: 1968-1998" (Wayne J. Stein); (12) "The Vanishing Native Reappears in the College Curriculum" (Clara Sue Kidwell); and (13) "Research To Support Improved Practice in Indian Education" (Karen Gayton Swisher, John W. Tippeconnic III). Contains references in each chapter and an index.
Full text [PDF]

Tippeconnic, III, J. W. (1999). Tribal Control of American Indian Education: Observations since the 1960s with implications for the future. In K. G. Swisher & J. W. Tippeconic, III (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education (pp. 33-52). Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED427904)

This chapter discusses the history and nature of Indian control of Indian education since the 1960s and its implications for the future. Local or tribal control of education is a basic principle inherent in the sovereignty status of American Indian tribes, and is also essential to reclaim and strengthen Native languages and cultures that were long targeted for destruction by assimilative educational policies. Major steps in the development of contemporary Indian control included Great Society programs of the 1960s that focused on community development and action; establishment of Rough Rock Demonstration School and Navajo Community College—the first tribally controlled college; federal legislation of the 1970s-80s that supported tribal sovereignty and tribal control of education; and the growth and success of tribal schools and colleges in the 1990s. Several observations explain the meaning and significance of tribal control, differences between tribal control and Indian community control, the link between tribal control and self-determination, the recent nature of true tribal control, and developments across tribes. It is also important to understand that most Indian students attend public schools, and the federal government has major financial responsibility for Indian education, but Indian education is often not a priority at any level of the school system. Indian-controlled schools are successful, but challenges remain in the areas of funding, student performance, Indian cultures and languages in the curriculum, parental and tribal involvement, school facilities, Indian leadership and staffing, and accreditation. Contains 33 references and notes.
Full text [PDF]

Wright, S. C., Taylor, D. M., Ruggeiro, K. M., MacArthur, J., & Elijassiapik, M. (1996). The Jaanimmarik School Language Testing Project. Montreal, Quebec: Kativik School Board. Retrieved January 24, 2002, from, http://www.kativik.qc.ca/downloads/KSBIR_e.pdf

In the fall of 1989, Jaanimmarik School in northern Quebec began offering kindergarten classes in Inuttitut, English, and French.

This document contains three reports of participant testing in grades K-2. "Examining the Potential for Academic Achievement: An Analysis of the Children's Performance on the Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices Test" shows that Inuit and mixed-heritage children's intellectual potential or "analytic intelligence" was superior to that of U.S. children in general, as well as African American, Mexican American, and Navajo children. "Identity and Language of Instruction: The Effects of Heritage Language versus Second Language Instruction on Personal Self-Esteem and Collective Self-Esteem" found that all kindergarten children at the school—Inuit, White, and mixed-heritage—had high personal self-esteem. Self-esteem increased for all students who went to kindergarten in their heritage language, but did not increase for Inuit children who went to kindergarten in English or French. "Heritage Language Maintenance and Second Language Learning: Early Inuttitut Instruction and Additive or Subtractive Bilingualism in Nunavik" reveals that by grade 2, Inuit children in the Inuttitut program had developed strong academic and conversational skills in their heritage language, those in the English and French programs had not developed strong academic skills in any language, and those in the English program were beginning to show signs of subtractive bilingualism. Among mixed-heritage children, those educated in English did well in English but developed little skill in the other languages, while those educated in Inuttitut developed native-like ability in Inuttitut and maintained strong conversational ability and some academic ability in English.
Available from [http://www.kativik.qc.ca/downloads/KSBIR_e.pdf]

Yazzie, T. (1999). Culturally appropriate curriculum: A research-based rationale. In K. Swisher & J. Tippeconic III (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education (pp. 83-106). Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED427906)

Educational researchers and practitioners have long advocated adopting a culturally appropriate curriculum to strengthen the education of Native youth. Such an approach uses materials that link traditional or cultural knowledge originating in Native home life and community to the curriculum of the school. Deeply imbedded cultural values drive curriculum development and implementation and help determine which subject matter and skills will receive the most classroom attention. This chapter examines theoretical and practical research studies that support and inform the development of culturally appropriate curriculum for American Indian children in K-12 classrooms. These studies fall into the following areas: (1) historical roots, including the Meriam Report of 1928; (2) theoretical frameworks (modes of linguistic interaction, supportive learning environments, communication and interaction styles of students and teachers); (3) curriculum development (approaches to overcome culture conflict, parent and community involvement, inquiry-based curriculum, role of Native language in concept development, local community issues, appropriate communication with elders); (4) curriculum practice and implementation (characteristics and behaviors of effective teachers, teacher role); and (5) implications for educational research and practice. (Contains 64 references.)
Full text [PDF]